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Did the Inca use a mysterious line of holes to collect TAX? Ancient empire may have used 6,000 pits to store and count tributes

  • Huge band of holes stretches several miles north from Peru’s Pisco Valley
  • Archaeologists estimate there may be up to 6,000 of the shallow pits
  • Aerial photographs have revealed they are arranged in regular patterns
  • Experts say they were used as part of a complex Inca accounting system

In an enormous band stretching several miles across an arid plateau in southern Peru, a mysterious line of shallow holes are perhaps one of the least well-known legacies of the Inca Empire.

The band of holes, which extends from north to south across the Pisco Valley in Nazca, Peru, like the world’s most uneven road, have baffled archaeologists for decades.

But archaeologists believe the narrow pockmarked piece of landscape may have been used to help the Inca rulers collect and collate their taxes.

A huge line of holes dug in a narrow band across the arid plateau above Peru’s Pisco Valley have baffled archaeologists for decades, but new research is suggesting they may have formed part of a complex tax collection system that allowed the Inca authorities to keep track of tributes paid to them

The rock-lined holes, which are around 3ft-wide (1 metre) and up to 40 inches (101 cm) deep, would have helped keep precious food cool and dry in the harsh climate, the researchers said.

Crucially, however, the holes would also have allowed the authorities to keep track of who or where the food tributes had come from.

Professor Charles Stanish, an archaeologist at the University of California Los Angeles, believes food in the holes was then allocated to people in the Inca state – a nearby storehouse called a colca.

Together with his colleague Henry Tantalean, he has found Inca pottery dating to shortly before the time when the Spanish invaded Peru in 1532.

Using drones, the team collected aerial images and have created a new map of the Band of Holes, which it estimate is made of more than 6,000 depressions before they peter out.

They found the layout of the holes was remarkably similar to the checkerboard pattern used in an Incan colca at Inkawasi, around 160 miles (258km) to the north.

Researchers there believe this was used to measure specific amounts of tribute owed by each farmer or family, which were then recorded a knotted string called a khipu.

The band of holes stretches several miles to the north of the Pico Valley before finally disappearing. From the ground it is hard to get a grip on the scale of the holes, but aerial photographs reveal their true extent (shown)

Professor Stanish said the band of holes also appears to be constructed alongside a road leading from the Pisco Valley floor to Tambo Colorado, a massive Inca administrative centre.

Speaking to Archaeology magazine, he said: ‘It’s the perfect place to stop, measure your produce and make sure you have the proper amount of tribute.

‘You may have had each social group come up and fill up their block with squash, maize or any other produce in front of the state’s accountants, who could have been keeping a tally with khipus.

‘The goods could have then been taken to Tambo Colorado or wherever else the authorities wanted to take them.’

While the team has yet to find any khipu at the band of holes, or remains of any crops that may have been stored in the holes, it believes its theory is compelling.

The band of holes has been largely overlooked by archaeologists in the past, partly because they look relatively unassuming from ground level.

However, viewed from the air, the band can be seen stretching for miles towards the north, over the rolling desert landscape.

Some believe the holes may be a form of geoglyphic art, much like the famous Nazca Lines to the south, but recent research has shown the band of holes (pictured) runs close to an old Inca road

Professor Stanish himself knew nothing about the holes despite having spent nearly 30 years excavating a site in the nearby Chincha valley just 10 miles (16km) away.

It was only when a member of the public contacted him to ask about the holes and he looked it up on Google Earth that he realised something had been overlooked.

The site was first documented in 1931 by aerial photographers and the few archaeologists who visited the site concluded the holes had been dug to provide storage.

But the reason why this was done has remained a mystery and the holes have been largely overshadowed by the more famous Nazca Lines which can also be found in the area.

The band of holes stretches several miles to the north from the Pisco Valley in southern Peru (shown on map)

There are also some that claim the holes were initially dug by a more ancient culture up to 2,300 years ago but then were adapted for use by the Inca.

Some claim the holes were built as a form of geoglyphic art much like the Nazca Lines themselves.

Dr Jean-Pierre Protzen, who specialises in Inca architecture at the University of California, Berkeley, believes the holes predate the Inca and may have been used to store guano as a fertiliser.

But Professor Stanish added: ‘If I’m right, then we’re going to have to think differently about a lot of sites that have been regarded as strictly ritual.

‘We could be on the cusp of a whole new understanding of Inca accounting.’

THE NAZCA’S MYSTERY HOLES

Holes scattered across the arid valleys of southern Peru, known as puquios, are thought to have formed a sophisticated hydraulic system

Further to the south, close to the town of Nazca, strange spiraling holes dotted across the arid valleys of southern Peru have puzzled generations of archaeologists.

But researchers believe they may have solved the mystery of the holes, known as puquios, with the help of satellite images and data.

They claim the holes formed part of a ‘sophisticated’ hydraulic system that allowed the ancient Nazca civilisation to retrieve water from underground aquifers.

The Nazca culture, which flourished around 100BC to 800AD, were the same people who created the vast geoglyphs on the featureless landscape, also known as the Nazca lines.

It is thought they operated by channelling wind into the earth down the corkscrew holes and into a series of underground canals that carried water from aquifers.

This influx of air kept the water moving along the canals, forcing it out into the network of channels in areas where it was needed.

THE MYSTERY OF PERU’S NAZCA LINES

The geoglyphs, more commonly known as the Nazca Lines, were apparently first spotted in 1939 when a pilot flew over the Nasca planes of the Peruvian coastal highlands – although its likely they were seen by locals on hill tops much earlier.

Most of the lines are formed by a shallow trench with a depth of between four inches (10cm) and six inches (15cm), made by removing the iron oxide-coated pebbles that cover the surface of the Nazca desert to expose the light-coloured earth beneath

They were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994 and the area stretches 50 miles (80km) between the towns of Nazca and Palpa, about 250 miles (400km) south of Lima.

Some 700 geoglyphs are thought to have been drawn by the ancient Nazca people between the first and sixth centuries.

The Nazca Lines are drawn into lighter coloured strata which contrasts with darker gravels on the plain.

Many of the images also appeared on pottery and textiles of the region. Other drawings represent flowers, plants, and trees.
A second is made from lines and more basic shapes such as spirals, triangle and rectangles.

Archaeological surveys have found wooden stakes in the ground at the end of some lines, which support theory the ancient people used simple tools and surveying equipment to construct the lines.

In general terms, the geoglyphs fall into two categories: the first group, of which about 70 have been identified, are said to represent natural objects, such as animals, birds and insects

Most of the lines are formed by a shallow trench with a depth of between four inches (10cm) and six inches (15cm), made by removing the reddish-brown iron oxide-coated pebbles that cover the surface of the Nazca desert and exposing the light-coloured earth beneath.

This sublayer contains high amounts of lime which has down the years hardened to form a protective layer that shields the lines from winds and prevents erosion.

Contrary to the popular belief that the figures can only be seen from the air, they are actually visible from the surrounding foothills.

Paul Kosok, from Long Island University, is credited as the first scholar to seriously study the Nazca Lines.

He discovered that the lines converged at the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere.

Along with Maria Reiche, a German mathematician and archaeologist, Kosok proposed the figures were markers on the horizon to show where the sun and other celestial bodies rose.

Source: UNESCO

www.dailymail.co.uk

by — 26/04/2016 in Prensa 0
Thousands of aligned holes in Peru’s Pisco Valley have attracted the attention of archaeologists

Peru Band of Holes 1
(American Museum of Natural History) A 1931 aerial photograph is the first known documentation of Monte Sierpe, an ancient Peruvian site popularly known as the “Band of Holes.»
Members of the public regularly get in touch with Charles Stanish, an expert on Andean cultures at the University of California, Los Angeles. Two years ago, Stanish received a call from a man in Pittsburgh who had just seen a program claiming that aliens played a large role in the lives of ancient people. He was interested in getting Stanish’s take on a particular Peruvian site purported to be the handiwork of extraterrestrials. “I always try to be nice to people like that,” says Stanish. “For whatever reason, they are interested in the ancient past, and I share with them what archaeologists know about the subject.” In this case, the man asked Stanish what he thought about the idea of aliens constructing a strange alignment of pits, known popularly as the “Band of Holes,” in Peru’s Pisco Valley. Though he has worked in the area for more than 30 years, Stanish had never heard of the site. He and his colleague Henry Tantaleán took a look at its coordinates on Google Earth for themselves, and were surprised by satellite imagery showing that the Band of Holes is indeed a highly unusual artificial feature. It seemed to be made up of thousands of small depressions running upslope. “I’d never seen anything like it,” says Stanish. “It really seemed unique.” It was also only 10 miles from Stanish and Tantaleán’s own excavations in the nearby Chincha Valley. Intrigued, they decided to try to understand the curious site.

Together, Stanish and Tantaleán speculated as to what the Band of Holes might have been. They reasoned it could have been part of a defensive structure, or served as a marker for a trail, or might even be a geoglyph in the tradition of the nearby Nazca lines. In searching the archaeological literature, they found that the site had first been documented in 1931 by aerial photographer and geographer Robert Shippee. Since then, a few archaeologists had visited and described it as being made up of segments of shallow holes running a mile up a hill known as Monte Sierpe. The consensus seemed to be that the holes were made to store something, but exactly what remained unclear. Despite the fact that previous generations of archaeologists knew about the site, no excavations had been conducted, and no obvious artifacts had been found near the holes. There was no agreement on when it was built or by what culture. For Stanish and Tantaleán, the mystery was deepening.

Peru Band of Holes 2
(Courtesy Charles Stanish) The mile-long arrangement of depressions is visible here in a recent image taken from a drone.
 In the 2015 field season, Stanish set up his team in the Chincha Valley and then drove with Tantaleán to Monte Sierpe. From below, the row upon row of holes creeping up the slope made for an imposing view. “Really, it is very impressive,” says Tantaleán. “I’d never seen anything like it in my entire career.” They quickly found a small amount of pottery dating to just before the time the Spanish invaded Peru, when the Inca ruled this part of it. There were also other signs it could be an Inca site. “I began to suspect it dated to the Inca period because at the base of the site there are tombs similar to those in the Chincha Valley that date to the time of the Incas,” says Tantaleán.

A survey showed that most of the holes were about three feet across and 20 to 40 inches deep. They were made in various ways, some dug into artificial mounds of soil and others made up of small rock structures on the surface. None were dug into the hill’s volcanic bedrock, as some who believe in their extraterrestrial origin claim. The archaeologists also noted that the band is divided into several unique groupings, which they called blocks, each of which have different patterns of holes.

Peru Band of Holes 3
(Courtesy Charles Stanish) The holes are on average about 3 feet wide and between 20 and 40 inches deep. They may have been used to measure produce being paid to the Inca state as tribute.
Using a drone, they collected aerial images and created a new, detailed map of the Band of Holes, which they estimate is made up of between 5,000 and 6,000 depressions. While others have maintained that the sheer number of holes makes it unlikely that prehistoric people could have constructed it on their own, Stanish calculates that if created all at once, the band could have been completed by a team of 100 workers in a month. A smaller group of 10 workers could have made it in perhaps 300 days, though it’s likely the holes were dug gradually over a long period of time. As impressive a feat as the Band of Holes appears, a well-organized group of people would have had no trouble creating it.

After surveying and studying the site, Stanish began to think that their initial hunch that it dated to the period when the Inca had conquered the area was right. They found not only the remains of an Inca road nearby, but also a series of colcas, Inca-period storage houses. Together with the discovery of Inca-period pottery near the band, these finds seem to suggest that the Band of Holes dates to sometime around the fifteenth century, after the Inca Empire conquered the Chincha people, who were native to the region. “It was all circumstantial,” says Stanish, “but it seemed to fit.” They also felt the holes were once used to store something, but just what and why still wasn’t clear

Peru Band of Holes 5
(Courtesy Alejandro Chu) The floor of a recently excavated Inca storehouse at the site of Inkawasi is divided into a checkerboard pattern used as a means of tallying tribute.
Back at UCLA, Stanish attended a lecture given by Harvard University archaeologist Gary Urton. Urton spoke about recent discoveries at the Inca site of Inkawasi, which is about 75 miles north of Monte Sierpe. The Peruvian archaeologist Alejandro Chu had found a number of the knotted-string recording devices known as khipus in colcas there. Many of the khipus were associated with the remains of various agricultural produce, such as peanuts and chilies, that had been laid out on a floor that was divided like a checkerboard. Farmers would have brought produce to the colcas as tribute to the Inca state. Urton and his colleagues speculate that each nine-by-nine-inch square in the checkerboard was used to measure the specific amount of tribute owed by each farmer or family. An official state accountant, known as a khipukamayuq, or a “khipu reader,” then recorded the tax on a string.

Stanish was impressed, and immediately saw a similarity between the Inkawasi checkerboard and the layout of the Band of Holes. “They had a really good explanation for how these squares would have been used to measure tribute,” says Stanish. “It seemed likely to me that the holes at Monte Sierpe could have been used to measure out tribute as well.”

The rest of the puzzle began to fall into place. Stanish notes that Monte Sierpe is only four miles from Tambo Colorado, a massive fifteenth-century Inca administrative center built above the agriculturally productive Pisco Valley. The Band of Holes is constructed along a road leading from the valley floor to Tambo Colorado. “It’s the perfect place to stop, measure your produce, and make sure you have the proper amount of tribute,” says Stanish. He thinks that each individual block of holes might have belonged to a different extended family, or ayllu, that would have been a distinct tax-paying group. “You may have had each social group come up and fill up their block with squash, maize, or any other produce in front of the state’s accountants, who could have been keeping a tally with khipus. The goods could have then been taken to Tambo Colorado, or wherever else the authorities wanted to take them.”

 

Peru Band of Holes 4
(Art Resource) An Inca official displays a khipu, or string-recording device, in this depiction from a Colonial-era chronicle of Andean history
If, in fact, the thousands of holes at the site were dug in order to measure tribute, the Band of Holes might be suggestive of the inner workings of the Inca Empire. “Troops were, of course, the blunt force of the state’s power,” says Urton. “But it was the khipukamayuqs who really established and maintained control over the regions.” Simply being conquered by the Inca didn’t make one a citizen of the empire, but paying taxes certainly did. And pouring beans and chilies into holes in front of state accountants would have brought the average farmer in the Pisco Valley face to face with the power of the state. “Inca accounting practices were the keys to maintaining control over the empire,” says Urton. “Khipukamayuqs really shaped the world of the Incas’ subjects.”

Stanish points out that as strong as the Inca state was, it was a far-flung empire, and its separate regions retained some autonomy. The fact that no exact parallel to the Band of Holes has yet been found may be because administrators in the Pisco Valley devised a local solution to the problem of measuring tribute. “The farther you get from the big Inca centers and Machu Picchu, the more local influences become apparent,” says Stanish. “Monte Sierpe may have satisfied a very local need.”

Stanish hopes to have a graduate student continue research at the Band of Holes, with excavation of carefully selected sections a priority. If the depressions were indeed used to measure produce, they could still hold pollen or even phytoliths, the telltale bits of silica in plant tissue that can allow archaeologists to detect the presence of particular species. “We need to find some phytoliths of maize, beans, squash, or peppers,” says Stanish. “That could help clinch it.”

Stanish will need to produce hard evidence to convince his fellow scholars. Jean-Pierre Protzen, a specialist in Inca architecture at the University of California, Berkeley, has his own theories about Monte Sierpe. Protzen has spent years working at Tambo Colorado, and feels the Band of Holes is not contemporaneous with the massive Inca center. “There are other, earlier major sites close to Monte Sierpe that could have been associated with it,” says Protzen. He thinks the holes may have been used to store guano, an important fertilizer. “It’s amazing visually,” says Protzen, “but we still don’t know much about it.”

Stanish agrees that his hypothesis needs to be tested. “Sure, it’s speculative,” he says. “But we could be on the cusp of a whole new understanding of Inca accounting.” He points out that other sites in the area with unusual alignments that have traditionally been considered religious might also have had roles in administering the tribute system. “If I’m right, then we’re going to have to think differently about a lot of sites that have been regarded as strictly ritual,” says Stanish. Should his theory about the site be proved, the Band of Holes will stand as a monument to the idea that for the Inca, too, death and taxes were the only certain things in life.

By ERIC A. POWELL
Eric A. Powell is online editor at ARCHAEOLOGY.

Source: http://www.archaeology.org/

by — 22/04/2016 in News Peruvian Archaeology & Tourism 0

Los daños ocasionados por el último terremoto no solamente afectaron el patrimonio arquitectónico monumental de las ciudades de la región Ica sino que también alcanzaron muros y rampas de sus principales asentamientos arqueológicos. Presentamos un informe sobre la situación de estas enormes ciudadelas prehispánicas de barro y piedra. Si bien no se ha registrado un colapso en ellas, urge la inmediata atención de todas aquellas instituciones interesadas en desarrollar un eje turístico en el sur del país.

Con la finalidad de evaluar, de manera preliminar, los efectos del reciente terremoto, la Dirección de Patrimonio Histórico del INC Ica llevó a cabo entre los días 21 al 26 de agosto pasado la inspección de un grupo de monumentos arqueológicos en las cinco provincias del departamento de Ica. Los sitios inspeccionados fueron las huacas la Centinela, la Cumbe, Tambo de Mora, Alvarado, la Centinela de San Pedro en Chincha, y el Complejo Soto. También los sitios de Tambo Colorado, Cerro Colorado y Cabezas Largas, en Pisco, así como Cerrillos, en Ica.

En la huaca la Centinela, un conjunto monumental de pirámides de barro, centro del poder político, militar y religioso del señorío de Chincha, además de sede administrativa del dominio inca en este valle, se observaron 21 puntos donde se ha producido caída parcial de los muros de adobones y de adobes que forman las estructuras. Las áreas más afectadas han sido la Pirámide Mayor o Templo de Chinchaycámac, donde hay colapso masivo de muros y fisuras en la plataforma superior, además de que los muros de contención han cedido. En el sector inca se observa también este último tipo de daño además de la caída de algunos adobes de los muros de los recintos.

En el centro administrativo incaico de Tambo Colorado, ubicado en el distrito de Humay, provincia de Pisco, se observan pequeños agrietamientos y colapsos parciales de paredes de recintos, particularmente en el denominado Palacio del Inca, o sector norte del complejo arqueológico. En el extremo sur, que colinda con la vía Los Libertadores-Wari, y que, varios años atrás, fuera destruido parcialmente por una avenida excepcional del río Pisco, se ha producido la caída parcial de muros de adobe, pero el daño mayor se percibe en las grandes fisuras aparecidas en la superficie de la plataforma sobre la cual se asienta todo el sector, con inminente peligro de colapso.

En los otros sitios los daños son similares, aunque en menor proporción, siendo la huaca Alvarado y Cabezas Largas los menos afectados. En Cerro Colorado, ubicado en la Península de Paracas, se han producido hundimientos circulares de 10 a 30 cm. de profundidad que creemos indican las aperturas de las conocidas tumbas “cavernas” excavadas por Julio C. Tello en los años veinte.

De otro lado, en la provincia de Palpa se han inspeccionado la extensa ciudadela de piedra de Huayurí, los geoglifos de la Cresta de Sacramento, los petroglifos de Chichitara y otros sitios arqueológicos, sin detectarse daño alguno. En la provincia de Nasca no se reportan afectaciones a ningún tipo de monumento arqueológico, incluyendo la Pampa de Nasca y los varios sistemas de acueductos prehispánicos.

Por lo observado en los monumentos evaluados, sobre todo en Chincha y Pisco, se puede afirmar que no ha habido, en siglos, un sismo de la magnitud de la del pasado 15 de agosto en la región de Ica, sólo comparable con el que en 1673 destruyó también, tal como ahora, la ciudad de Pisco.

by — 22/07/2007 in Atentados 0
El Caballito de Totora: Caballero de los mares

El caballito de totora, la milenaria embarcación que ha sido instrumento para la pesca y sobrevivencia del hombre costeño así como un gran aliado en su relación con el mar, es ahora Patrimonio Cultural de la Nación.

El Caballero la sabiduría con la que los antiguos pescadores peruanos dominaron el mar.

Con el paso del tiempo han presenciado también cómo estos mismos hombres transmitieron su sapiencia y técnica a generaciones que han mantenido las mismas costumbres hasta el presente.

En la antigüedad, de cara a la aridez del desierto, el mar desbordaba sus riquezas y planteaba una serie de retos a los pobladores, entre ellos la constitución de una ruta de navegación y otra de pesca.

El antiguo hombre costeño o yunga sorteó esos obstáculos y se volvió ducho en el arte de interactuar con el mar.

En esa empresa jugó un papel capital el caballito de totora.

Desde siempre la nave fue construida con la totora que los pescadores cultivaban en lagunillas costeñas o humedales cercanos al mar.

Se verifica, a la luz de las investigaciones arqueológicas, que dichas chalupas –compuestas por dos pares de envolturas de tallos de la planta que, amarradas con una fibra por ambos lados, forman una proa delgada y levantada en punta–, fueron representadas en objetos de barro y cerámica correspondientes a las culturas Mochica, Chimú y Chancay.

Así, se concluye que la navegación practicada sobre estas barcazas se desarrolló por toda la costa, desde el norte (Huanchaco, Trujillo) hasta el sur (Pisco, en Ica).

Según María Rostworowski, la difusión de este medio de transporte fue mayor, ya que «los pescadores y gente que vivían del mar tenían libertad de movimiento y el hábito de navegar con gran facilidad a lo largo de la costa».

Esto, sin duda, por la necesidad de intercambiar productos como el pescado seco y el mullu o spondylus.

Ya en la Colonia, sus funciones se fueron ampliando considerablemente.

Según Rostworowski, un dato registrado por la etnohistoria manifiesta que por la pericia de los navegantes y su facilidad sobre los caballitos de totora, éstos «recibieron la tarea de vigilar las costas de posibles ataques de corsarios y tenían un puesto de vigilancia en el islote frente al templo de Pachacámac y en caso de alerta navegaban hasta el Callao a dar aviso».

Actualmente la tradición perdura y los pescadores y usuarios de la embarcación surcan los mares con la destreza que otorga miles de años acumulados en el arte de cabalgar sobre las olas.

Conquistaron las corrientes y aún hoy, cuando son tumbados por la fiereza del mar, lo remontan «al galope» pues continúan siendo excelentes nadadores.

Igualmente, la pesca se realiza a través de dos técnicas ancestrales: el azuelo y la red.

Y aun cuando la tradición se mantiene intacta sólo en las playas del norte –en muchas de Lambayeque y en Huanchaco, La Libertad, donde todavía existen diferencias entre los estilos de construcción– un nuevo impulso le ha otorgado plena vigencia.

El 27 de agosto del 2003, mediante Resolución Directoral Nacional N° 648/INC del Instituto Nacional de Cultura fechada el 27 de agosto del 2003, se declaró al Caballito de Totora Patrimonio Cultural de la Nación y expresión de la Cultura Viva que identifica a la población del litoral norte del Perú.

Así pues, se ha reconocido con justicia una manifestación señera de aquella vasta sabiduría que refuerza el sentimiento de identidad regional y nacional.

brice by — 12/04/2004 in Patrimonio